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Duration, timing and quality of sleep are each vital for health, performance and safety

Published:January 13, 2015DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.008
Duration, timing and quality of sleep are each vital for health, performance and safety
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      has argued that “sleep is of the brain, by the brain, and for the brain.” In 2007, systems biologist Van Savage and theoretical physicist Geoffrey West concluded that the reason why small mammals with a high metabolic rate like the mouse sleep so much longer, approximately 14 hours per day, than large mammals with a low metabolic rate like the elephant, which sleeps only 3.5 hours per day, is that the core function of sleep is to repair, reorganize, and maintain the brain's neurons, which burn more energy per unit mass than any other tissue.
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      it has been demonstrated unequivocally that the duration, timing, and quality of sleep also critically affect physical health, mental health, performance, and safety.
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      Thus, it is clear that sleep is critical not just for optimal brain functioning but also for optimal functioning of the body as well.

      Sleep duration and health

      Recent data indicate that 28% of Americans report obtaining insufficient sleep on most nights, and only 31% of Americans report consistently obtaining sufficient sleep.
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      decreases insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance
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      Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function.
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      impairs the immune response to vaccination,
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      degrades the ability to resist infection,
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      disturbs mood,
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      increases the vulnerability to attentional failures,
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      Cumulative sleepiness, mood disturbance, and psychomotor vigilance performance decrements during a week of sleep restricted to 4-5 hours per night.
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      and, when combined with prior chronic circadian disruption, impairs pancreatic β-cell responsiveness.
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      Concurrently, epidemiologic studies have revealed that habitually short sleepers have an increased prevalence of obesity;
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      that short sleep duration in young children confers an increased risk of obesity in older children
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      and that habitually short and habitually long sleepers are at increased risk for incident calcification of the coronary arteries,
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      incident coronary heart disease,
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      incident type 2 diabetes,
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      Sleep timing and health

      During that same time interval, emerging evidence that chronic exposure to recurrent disruption of sleep and circadian timing induced by night shift work increases the risk of breast cancer,
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      endometrial cancer,
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      colorectal cancer,
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      and prostate cancer
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      has led the World Health Organization to classify night shift work as a probable carcinogen.
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      Moreover, extended duration (>24 hours) work shifts have been associated with poorer performance on clinical tasks
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      and increased risks of serious medical errors, preventable adverse events, self-inflicted percutaneous injuries, and motor vehicle crashes among resident physicians;
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      and 12-hour shifts and frequent overtime are associated with an increased risk of making an error
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      and having an occupational injury.
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      Laboratory studies have demonstrated that misalignment between the timing of the sleep-wake cycle and endogenous circadian rhythmicity disturbs energy metabolism;
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      adversely affects both glucose metabolism and cardiovascular regulation;
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      Adverse metabolic consequences in humans of prolonged sleep restriction combined with circadian disruption.
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      and impairs attention, neurobehavioral performance, mood, and cognition.
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      Epidemiologic studies reveal that night shift work is associated with increased odds of obesity;
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      Night shift work at specific age ranges and chronic disease risk factors.
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      a 5-fold increase in the risk of progressing from impaired glucose tolerance to diabetes;
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      an increased risk of blood pressure elevation;
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      incident coronary heart disease, including fatal and nonfatal myocardial infarctions;
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      It has even been reported that 5 years of exposure to recurrent transmeridian travel (jet lag) produces atrophy of the brain's temporal lobe.
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      Sleep quality and health

      Sleep disruption caused by a variety of sleep disorders has been associated with adverse consequences on health, performance, and safety. Chronic insomnia, which affects approximately one-tenth of the US population,
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      Metabolic consequences of sleep and circadian disorders.
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      is both a symptom of and a risk factor for anxiety and depression.
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      Difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep is associated with an increased risk of incident type 2 diabetes
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      Quantity and quality of sleep and incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
      Diabetes Care. 2010; 33: 414-420
      and incident prostate cancer, including advanced prostate cancer.
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      Sleep disruption among older men and risk of prostate cancer.
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      Chronic insomnia is associated with an increased risk of developing or dying of cardiovascular disease.
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      In a prospective 20-year follow-up study, Parthasarathy et al
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      Persistent insomnia is associated with mortality risk.
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      recently found that participants with persistent insomnia had higher serum C-reactive protein levels and were more likely to die than participants without insomnia.
      Now that the definition of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) has been corrected such that it no longer requires a concomitant complaint of excessive daytime sleepiness, it is recognized that the prevalence of OSA is much higher than the oft-quoted underestimate of 4% of men and 2% of women that was based on that erroneously restrictive definition.
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      Moreover, over the past 20 years, the prevalence of OSA (Apnea-Hypopnea Index, AHI >5) with or without the complaint of daytime sleepiness has risen from 24% of men and 9% of women to 34% of men and 17% of women, with 13% of adult men and 6% of adult women in the United States having moderate-to-severe OSA,
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      which can have serious health and safety consequences. In children, OSA is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and poorer academic performance.
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      In adults, OSA is associated with disturbed glycemic regulation and an increased risk of diabetes,
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      Metabolic consequences of sleep and circadian disorders.
      Curr Diab Rep. 2014; 14: 507
      increased risk of incident nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and liver fibrosis,
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      incident ventricular arrhythmias,
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      incident cardiovascular risk,
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      Drowsy driving symptomatic of pervasive sleep deficiency

      Despite these recent advances in understanding the health, performance and safety impacts of sleep loss, sleep deficiency—a deficit in the quantity or quality of sleep obtained vs the amount needed for optimal health, performance, and well-being—is increasing in our society. As noted in the 2011 National Institutes of Health Sleep Disorders Research Plan, “sleep deficiency may result from prolonged wakefulness leading to sleep deprivation, insufficient sleep duration, sleep fragmentation or a sleep disorder, such as in OSA, that disrupts sleep and thereby renders sleep nonrestorative.”
      • National Center on Sleep Disorders Research
      National Institutes of Health Sleep Disorders Research Plan.
      in: National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD2011
      Unfortunately, as noted above, sleep deficiency from each of those causes is on the rise. Although some contrarians continue to argue that health concerns about sleep deficiency are overrated,
      • Horne J.
      Is there a sleep debt?.
      Sleep. 2004; 27: 1047-1049
      the fact that an estimated 58.8 million of America's licensed drivers report driving while drowsy each month
      • National Sleep Foundation
      Sleep in America Poll: summary of findings.
      in: 2009
      and that 7.5 million of them lose that struggle and fall asleep at the wheel each month,
      • Royal D.
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      Committee on Sleep Medicine Research Board on Health Sciences Policy.
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      , 
      https://www.aaafoundation.org/sites/default/files/AAAFoundation-DrowsyDriving-Nov2014.pdf
      demonstrates that many Americans are not even obtaining the sleep that they need to conduct routine daily functions like driving, let alone maintain optimal mental and physical fitness.
      Compelling evidence thus reveals that sleep is vital for both the brain and the body. For this reason, the National Sleep Foundation has launched Sleep Health, a new journal dedicated to ensuring that research addressing the broader public health implications of the epidemic of sleep deficiency has a permanent home.

      Disclosure

      Dr Czeisler has received consulting fees from or served as a paid member of scientific advisory boards for the following: Bose Corporation; Boston Celtics; Boston Red Sox; Columbia River Bar Pilots; Citgo Inc; Cleveland Browns; Merck; Novartis; Purdue Pharma LP; Quest Diagnostics, Inc; Teva Pharmaceuticals Industries Ltd; Valero Inc; and Vanda Pharmaceuticals, Inc; Dr Czeisler currently owns an equity interest in Lifetrac, Inc; Somnus Therapeutics, Inc; Vanda Pharmaceuticals, Inc; Dr Czeisler received royalties from McGraw Hill; Penguin Press/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; and Philips Respironics, Inc and has received grants and research support from Cephalon Inc; National Football League Charities; Philips Respironics; ResMed Foundation; San Francisco Bar Pilots; and Sysco. Dr Czeisler is the incumbent of an endowed professorship provided to Harvard University by Cephalon, Inc and holds a number of process patents in the field of sleep/circadian rhythms (eg, photic resetting of the human circadian pacemaker). Since 1985, Dr Czeisler has also served as an expert witness on various legal cases related to sleep and/or circadian rhythms, including matters involving Bombardier, Inc; Delta Airlines; FedEx; Greyhound; Michael Jackson's mother and children; Purdue Pharma, LP; United Parcel Service; and the United States of America.

      Acknowledgments

      Supported in part by the following grants: NIH/NHLBI-HL095472, NIH/NHLBI-HL94654, NIH/NHLBI-U01-HL111478 from the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute; NIH/NIA-P01-AG009975 from the National Institute on Aging; NIH/NIGMS R01 GM105018 from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences; NASA NCC9-119, NASA NNX10AF47G and NASA Cooperative Agreement NCC 9-58 from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NSBRI-HFP02801 and NSBRI-HFP02802 from the National Space Biomedical Research Institute; FEMA EMW-2010-FP-00521 from the Federal Emergency Management Agency; and GAMS-839 from the National Football League Charities.

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      Article info

      Publication history

      Published online: January 13, 2015

      Identification

      DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.008

      Copyright

      © 2015 National Sleep Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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